Dryden's Essay On Dramatic Poesy

John Dryden

John Dryden was an English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who in 1668 was appointed England's first Poet Laureate. He is seen as dominating the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the Age of Dryden.

Samuel Johnson, a prominent 18th-century English writer and lexicographer, is credited with calling John Dryden the "Father of English Criticism".

Discuss any difference serve between Aristotle's definition of Tragedy and Dryden's definition of Play.

Aristotle's definition of tragedy and John Dryden's view of play highlight different aspects of dramatic theory from their respective eras.

Aristotle's Definition of Tragedy: 

Tragedy,” says Aristotle, “is an imitation [mimēsis] of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude…through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation [catharsis] of these emotions.” 

In his work "Poetics," Aristotle defines tragedy as a form of drama that represents an action with serious implications and uses a language that is rich and adorned. His key elements include:

Plot: The most crucial element, which should be a complete whole with a beginning, middle, and end, evoking pity and fear.

Character: The protagonist should be a person of high status with a tragic flaw (hamartia) leading to their downfall.Thought: The themes and messages conveyed through the drama.Diction: The quality of the language used.

Melody: The musical element of the chorus. 

Spectacle: The visual aspects of the play, though less critical than the plot and character.

Aristotle’s definition focuses on the emotional impact of tragedy, particularly its capacity to evoke catharsis through the protagonist’s fall from grace due to a personal flaw or mistake.

Dryden's Definition of Play: 

John Dryden, a 17th-century playwright and critic, approached the concept of the play with a different perspective, influenced by the neoclassical ideals of his time. His definition, often found in his "An Essay of Dramatic Poesie," emphasizes:Unity of Action: Like Aristotle, Dryden values a unified plot but places emphasis on its coherence and the integration of subplots.

"a play ought to be a just and lively imaging of human. nature, representing its passions and humours and the changes of. fortune to which it is subject for the delight and instruction of man. "

Character: Dryden acknowledges the importance of character development but also emphasizes the role of wit and humor in engaging the audience.

Decorum: Characters should act according to their social status and context, maintaining a certain level of propriety and fitting behavior.

Complexity: Dryden’s plays often involve intricate plots and subplots, focusing on creating a balance between the main action and secondary elements.

Moral Purpose: Dryden also stresses that plays should convey moral lessons or reflect moral truths, aligning with the neoclassical focus on instructive drama.

In summary, while Aristotle’s definition centers on the emotional and moral impact of tragedy, emphasizing plot and character flaws, Dryden’s approach to playwriting includes a broader consideration of dramatic structure, decorum, and the blending of serious and comedic elements. Both frameworks highlight the importance of plot and character but reflect the evolving nature of dramatic theory across different historical periods.

If you were to express your personal preference, would you side with the Ancients or the Moderns? Provide reasons for your choice.

Preference for the Moderns (Dryden):

Flexibility and Innovation: Modern approaches, as seen in Dryden’s work, embrace flexibility and allow for a broader range of dramatic forms, including the blending of genres and the incorporation of diverse elements like wit, humor, and intricate subplots.

Cultural and Social Reflection: Moderns often reflect contemporary social, political, and cultural issues more directly, allowing drama to engage with current concerns and resonate with contemporary audiences in ways that might not have been possible in the ancient context.

Variety and Inclusivity: The modern approach allows for a wider range of styles and voices, offering opportunities for experimentation and innovation that can lead to new forms of expression and engagement with audiences.

If I had to choose, I would lean towards the Moderns for their adaptability and relevance to contemporary issues. 

State your preference for poetic or prosaic dialogues in a play and explain your reasoning.

I would prefer poetic dialogues in a play for several reasons:

Elevated Language: Poetic dialogues can enhance the emotional depth and intensity of a play. The use of meter, rhythm, and heightened language can elevate the dramatic experience and add a layer of beauty and sophistication to the text.

Expressive Power: Poetic language often allows for greater expressiveness and creativity. It can convey complex emotions and ideas in a more nuanced and evocative manner, which can enrich character development and thematic exploration.

Memorability: The rhythmic and structured nature of poetic dialogue can make lines more memorable and impactful. This can leave a lasting impression on the audience and enhance the overall experience of the play.

Tradition and Influence: Many of the most celebrated plays in Western literature, such as Shakespeare’s works, utilize poetic dialogue. This tradition has proven to be highly effective in engaging audiences and conveying profound themes.

However, prosaic dialogues also have their merits, particularly in terms of naturalism and accessibility. They can create a sense of realism and immediacy that resonates with modern audiences. Ultimately, the choice between poetic and prosaic dialogue depends on the play’s goals and the desired effect on the audience. For a play aiming for lyrical beauty and emotional depth, poetic dialogue is often more fitting.

MACBETH :Screening and Reading

Preface:

Macbeth, tragedy in five acts by William Shakespeare, written sometime in 1606–07 and published in the First Folio of 1623 from a playbook or a transcript of one. Some portions of the original text are corrupted or missing from the published edition. The play is the shortest of Shakespeare’s tragedies, without diversions or subplots. It chronicles Macbeth’s seizing of power and subsequent destruction, both his rise and his fall the result of blind ambition.

Genre: Tragedy.Macbeth represents a classic tragedy in that its protagonist travels down a dark path of treachery and violence that inevitably leads to his own downfall and death.

Mood & Tone :The mood is dark and sinister and bleak. All of this comes from a terrible ambition that has been set in motion and the end is now visibly waiting.

Style : Macbeth is written mostly in blank verse. Other examples of techniques used in the play include the characters speaking ambiguously, metaphor, personification, and simile.

Opening scene of Act 1 and Act 4 :

The play "Macbeth" begins with a brief but impactful scene featuring the three witches.music can significantly enhance the atmosphere and set the tone for the drama.it started with the performance of three witches. It play a significant role of supernatural elements. That work through out the drama. Become driving force behind the drama. Witches manipulate MACBETH. Then also LADY MACBETH try to manipulate him. And Macbeth easily manipulate by three witches and also by Lady Macbeth. In Act 4 prophecies mislead Macbeth into a false sense of invincibility, fueling his growing tyranny and leading to further bloodshed. The witches' manipulations drive Macbeth's descent into  paranoia and violence.

Setting of the Play

William Shakespeare's Macbeth is primarily set in 11th-century Scotland, with a few scenes in England. The play takes place in several Scottish castles, including Castle Forres, Castle Inverness, Castle Fife, and Dunsinane Hill. The majority of the action towards the end of the play occurs on Dunsinane Hill, which is Macbeth's stronghold against Malcolm's troops. The opening scene, which features the three witches and their predictions, is set in a barren desert, which in Scotland likely refers to a sparsely covered heath. 

 

Role of Supernatural elements:

In Macbeth, supernatural elements are an integral part of the plot structure, providing insight into characters, catalyzing action, and enhancing the impact of key scenes. The supernatural appears in many forms, including ghosts, witches, floating daggers, and prophetic apparitions. 

Here are some ways the supernatural elements in Macbeth contribute to the play: 

Catholic theology

                  The supernatural in Macbeth fits well with Catholic theology. For example, Banquo's ghost only appears to Macbeth, similar to how King Hamlet's ghost only appears to Hamlet, not his friends. 

Moral and psychological significance 

                 Shakespeare's use of supernaturalism adds deep moral and psychological significance to the play, bringing it into harmony with the characters. For example, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth both dabble with witchcraft and apparitions, and lose everything due to misplaced trust in the powers of darkness. 

Dramatic power and intrigue

                 Supernatural elements are central to many of Shakespeare's plays, contributing to their dramatic power and intrigue. For example, ghosts haunt political spaces and psyches, witches foresee the future and disturb the present, and fairies meddle with love. 

How does Macbeth's ambition lead to his moral deterioration throughout the play? Provide examples from the play to support your answer. 

                   Macbeth’s ambition is first kindled by the witches’ prophecy that he will become king. Initially, Macbeth is hesitant, grappling with the moral implications of murdering King Duncan. However, Lady Macbeth's manipulation and his own ambition overpower his hesitation. Macbeth’s soliloquy  reveals his internal conflict but ultimately he decides to proceed with the murder, illustrating his moral compromise in pursuit of power. His ambition blinds him to the moral consequences of his actions.

                  After seizing the throne, Macbeth becomes increasingly paranoid about maintaining his power. His ambition drives him to commit further atrocities, such as the murder of Banquo and the massacre of Macduff’s family . Macbeth’s decision to eliminate Banquo stems from his fear that Banquo’s descendants, as foretold by the witches, will threaten his newly gained power. This growing list of crimes shows how his ambition continues to erode his moral compass.

                  Macbeth’s unchecked ambition leads him to become a tyrant, alienating those around him. His increasing cruelty and erratic behavior isolate him from his allies and subjects. Macbeth reflects on the futility of his ambition after hearing of Lady Macbeth’s death and the advancing forces against him. His earlier moral hesitations are long gone, replaced by a hardened, disillusioned acceptance of his own destruction.

 Macbeth vs. Lady Macbeth

                  Macbeth is portrayed as a brave and loyal soldier who is manipulated by his ambition and the prophecies of the witches. He is wracked with guilt and paranoia after committing the murder of King Duncan. Over the course of the play, Macbeth becomes increasingly tyrannical and ruthless in his attempts to maintain power.

                In contrast, Lady Macbeth is the driving force behind the murder of Duncan. She is ambitious, manipulative, and willing to do whatever it takes to make Macbeth king. However, after the deed is done, she is consumed by guilt and remorse, leading to her famous sleepwalking scene and eventual suicide.

                Whereas Macbeth becomes hardened and desensitized to his crimes, Lady Macbeth is unable to cope with the moral weight of their actions. She represents the psychological toll that the pursuit of power can take, whereas Macbeth demonstrates how ambition can corrupt one's morality and humanity over time. Their divergent responses to the murder highlight their different personalities and character arcs within the play.

'Blood' as symbol

Blood is a symbol that represents guilt, violence, and destruction. It also represent the profound guilt and moral decay resulting from Macbeth's actions. Initially, blood represents Macbeth's deep remorse and the permanence of his crimes, as seen when he laments that not even all the water in Neptune's ocean can wash the blood from his hands after murdering Duncan. As the play progresses, blood becomes a marker of Macbeth’s increasing tyranny and paranoia. His hallucinations of blood on Banquo’s ghost and Lady Macbeth’s descent into madness further illustrate the inescapable weight of their guilt. Ultimately, blood symbolizes the irreversible corruption and existential despair that consume Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, underscoring the destructive consequences of unchecked ambition.

Theme

The central themes of "Macbeth" include:

Ambition and Power: Macbeth's unchecked ambition leads him to murder King Duncan and seize the throne. This theme explores how the desire for power can corrupt and ultimately destroy a person.

Fate vs. Free Will: The play raises questions about whether Macbeth's actions are driven by destiny, as foretold by the witches, or by his own choices and ambitions.

Guilt and conscious: Macbeth and Lady Macbeth both experience intense guilt and psychological torment after committing murder, highlighting the destructive effects of their actions on their mental state.

The Supernatural: The witches and their prophecies introduce a supernatural element that influences Macbeth's decisions and actions, blending the natural with the unnatural to drive the narrative.

Madness: Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth descend into madness, which reflects the consequences of their moral and psychological transgressions.

These themes intertwine to create a complex exploration of human nature and moral conflict.

 

Conclusion:

Thus, the movie screening give us wide idea about how reading and screening different from each other. We can not see expression of character in reading but in screening we can see all these expression. If we are not able to understand language of Shakespeare so, we can easily guess the situation according to character's mood or action. Book reading is little bit of difficult than screening. Screening don't have limitations of language. While reading text it's necessary to understand all the words for better understanding. So, I like screening. 

Basically we saw the screening of drama, which was played in Globe Theatre🎭. So here are some glimpse of performance... 

Preface To The Lyrical Ballad by William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth:

             

             William Wordsworth (1770 – 23 April 1850) was an English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798).

Introduction:

             

             The Preface to Lyrical Ballads is an essay, composed by William Wordsworth, for the second edition published in 1800 of the poetry collection Lyrical Ballads, and then greatly expanded in the third edition of 1802. It includes many topics like... 

-Ordinary life is the best subject for poetry

-Wordsworth uses common man's language

-Everyday language is best suited for poetry etc. 

Why does Wordsworth ask "What is a poet?" rather than "Who is a poet?"

Wordsworth’s choice to ask "What is a poet?" instead of "Who is a poet?" reflects his philosophical and conceptual approach to understanding the nature of poetry. By asking "What," Wordsworth is probing the essence and qualities of a poet rather than focusing on individual identities. He aims to explore the fundamental characteristics and functions of poetry and poets, considering their role, purpose, and impact in a broader, more abstract sense. This approach allows him to delve into the definition and significance of poetry itself.

*How does Wordsworth define poetry? Discuss this definition in relation to his poetic philosophy.

*Wordsworth famously said, “For all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.” Explain this with reference to Wordsworth’s definition of poetry.

William Wordsworth’s definition of poetry, articulated in his "Preface to Lyrical Ballads," emphasizes poetry as the expression of genuine emotions and experiences. He defines poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" that are recollected in tranquility. According to Wordsworth, poetry arises from a deep emotional experience and is shaped by reflection and contemplation.

This definition aligns closely with Wordsworth’s poetic philosophy, which champions the idea that poetry should be a natural, sincere expression of the human experience. He believed that poets have a unique ability to convey complex emotions and universal truths through their work, allowing readers to connect with the poet’s inner world and experience profound feelings themselves.

Wordsworth also valued simplicity and directness in language, arguing that poetry should be accessible to ordinary people rather than confined to the elite. He saw poetry as a means to elevate the common experiences and emotions of everyday life, rendering them into a form that speaks to universal human truths. This perspective is evident in his emphasis on the natural world and the common experiences of rural life, which he felt were rich sources of poetic inspiration.

In summary, Wordsworth’s definition of poetry as a spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, recollected in tranquility, reflects his belief in the importance of genuine emotional expression, simplicity, and the connection between the poet’s personal experience and broader human experience.

*Poetic Diction

Language really spoken by men in ordinary life. Wordsworth believed that poets should employ a simpler, more natural language that reflects the common speech of people, making poetry more accessible and genuine. This approach contrasts with the ornate and conventional diction that was popular in the 18th century.

Wordsworth favored colloquial diction and simple diction. He advocated for using the "language really spoken by men" to make poetry more relatable and genuine, moving away from the ornate style typical of his predecessors there were belongs to classical age. His emphasis was on clarity and emotional honesty, reflecting ordinary speech patterns and everyday experiences.

There are some major diction that was followed by Wordsworth in his poetry. 

Everyday Language: 

Wordsworth often employed common, conversational language rather than the high-flown diction of his predecessors. He aimed to write poetry that was accessible and relatable to ordinary people. For example, in "Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey," he uses straightforward language to convey deep philosophical thoughts.

Natural Imagery:

Wordsworth's diction frequently draws upon natural imagery, reflecting his Romantic interest in nature. His descriptions of natural scenes use familiar and concrete terms, as seen in "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," where he describes daffodils with simple yet vivid language.

Emphasis on Emotion and Reflection:

Wordsworth's language often reflects personal emotion and introspection. In "The Prelude," his use of direct and unadorned language helps convey his personal experiences and philosophical insights.

Simplicity and Clarity: 

He prioritised clarity and simplicity over ornate language. This approach is evident in poems like "The Tables Turned," where he contrasts the value of book learning with the wisdom gained from nature, using clear and direct language to communicate his message.

Analyze the poem in the context of Wordsworth's poetic creed.

             

              William Wordsworth’s poetry often exemplifies his concept of poetic diction, which he believed should be written in the "real language of men" rather than in the elevated or artificial style used by earlier poets. Here are a one examples from his work:

  1) "The Prelude"

Wordsworth's autobiographical epic also reflects his belief in using ordinary language. For example:

“I was a thy little boy, who at the time / Had scarcely left his mother's arms. "

2) "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud"

In this poem, Wordsworth describes a field of daffodils with straightforward, everyday language:

“For oft, when on my couch I lie / In vacant or in pensive mood, / They flash upon that inward eye / Which is the bliss of solitude.”

               In these examples, Wordsworth's diction is simple and natural, aiming to reflect genuine human emotions and experiences rather than adhering to ornate or artificial language.

*Wordsworth describes a poet as "a man speaking to men: a man, it is true, endowed with more lively sensibility, more enthusiasm and tenderness.” Explain this with reference to your reading of Wordsworth’s views in the preface to lyrical ballad. 

In the "Preface to Lyrical Ballads," Wordsworth describes a poet as "a man speaking to men: a man, it is true, endowed with more lively sensibility, more enthusiasm and tenderness."

Communication and Connection: Wordsworth sees the poet primarily as a communicator who speaks to others. The poet's role is to convey emotions, thoughts, and experiences in a way that resonates with the readers or audience. The poet’s work should bridge the gap between individual experiences and the shared human condition.

Enhanced Sensibility: Wordsworth acknowledges that poets possess a heightened level of sensibility. This means they have a deeper emotional response to the world around them and are more acutely aware of their own feelings and the nuances of experience. This sensitivity allows poets to capture and articulate emotions with greater intensity and clarity than the average person.

Enthusiasm and Tenderness: The poet’s enthusiasm reflects their passionate engagement with life and their subject matter, while tenderness denotes a compassionate and empathetic approach to human experiences. This combination enables poets to connect with readers on an emotional level and to offer insights that are both profound and relatable.

 

*Wordsworth claims that “A poet has a greater knowledge of human nature, and a more comprehensive soul, than one supposed to be common among mankind.” Discuss this with reference to your reading of Wordsworth’s views in the preface to lyrical ballad. 

In the "Preface to Lyrical Ballads," Wordsworth’s claim that "a poet has a greater knowledge of human nature, and a more comprehensive soul, than one supposed to be common among mankind" reflects his belief in the exceptional nature of the poet’s insight and sensitivity.who has greater knowledge of human nature, and a more comprehensive soul, who rejoice, more than other men In  the spirit of life;habitually impelled to creative volition, passions to write something new. So " poet has a greater knowledge of human nature, and a more comprehensive soul, than one supposed to be common among mankind.”

Conclusion:

               

               Overall, Wordsworth’s poetic diction was designed to evoke a sense of authenticity and emotional depth, grounded in the natural world and everyday experience.

Napoleonic Wars

 Napoleon

 Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military officer and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led a series of successful campaigns across Europe during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars from 1796 to 1815. He was the leader of the French Republic as First Consul from 1799 to 1804, then of the French Empire as Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814, and briefly again in 1815.

Introduction:

Basically, Napoleonic wars were divided into seven part. From 1803 to 1812.It divided as 'War of Third Coalition', 'War of Fourth coalition', 'War of Fifth coalition', War of Sixth coalition', 'War of Seventh coalition', 'Peninsular War' and 'French invasion of Russia'. 

 

Causes of wars

The Napoleonic Wars were driven by several key factors:

French Revolution: The upheaval of the French Revolution (1789-1799) significantly altered the political landscape of France, leading to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. The revolution’s ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity threatened the traditional monarchies of Europe.

 

French Revolutionary Wars: The conflicts that began during the French Revolution continued into the Napoleonic Wars. European monarchies formed coalitions to counter the spread of revolutionary ideas and to restore the French monarchy. 

Napoleon’s Ambitions: Napoleon’s desire to expand French territory and influence across Europe played a crucial role. His aggressive foreign policy and military campaigns aimed to establish French dominance. 

Economic Factors: France’s economic struggles, partly due to its involvement in the American Revolutionary War and the extravagant spending of the French monarchy, contributed to internal instability and the need for external conquests to secure resources. 

Geopolitical Tensions: The breakdown of the peace agreement between France and Britain in 1803, along with Napoleon’s attempts to control key regions like Switzerland and his imposition of the Continental System to weaken Britain’s economy, further escalated tensions.

These causes collectively set the stage for a series of conflicts that reshaped Europe and had lasting impacts on global history.

 Napoleonic Wars :

1)War of the Third Coalition (1803-1806) 

The War of the Third Coalition (French: Guerre de la Troisième Coalition) was a European conflict lasting from 1805 to 1806 and was the first conflict of the Napoleonic Wars. During the war, France and its client states under Napoleon I and its ally Spain opposed an alliance, the Third Coalition, which was made up of the United Kingdom, the Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire, Naples, Sicily, and Sweden. Prussia remained neutral during the war.

 

There are two major Battle in Napoleonic war during a war of third coalition. 

Battle of Trafalgar (1805): This was a naval engagement during the Napoleonic Wars, fought on October 21, 1805. The British Royal Navy, commanded by Admiral Horatio Nelson, decisively defeated the combined fleets of France and Spain off the coast of Cape Trafalgar in southern Spain. This victory secured British naval supremacy and prevented Napoleon from launching an invasion of Britain.

 

The Battle of Austerlitz(1805), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was fought on December 2, 1805. It was one of Napoleon Bonaparte's most significant victories during the Napoleonic Wars. The battle took place near Austerlitz (modern-day Slavkov u Brna) in the Austrian Empire (now the Czech Republic). Napoleon's French forces decisively defeated the combined armies of Russia and Austria, led by Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. The victory solidified Napoleon's dominance in Europe and is often cited as a masterpiece of strategic planning and execution.

2)War of the Fourth coalition (1806-1807)

 Within months of the collapse of the Third Coalition, the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807) against France was formed by Britain, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. In July 1806,

3)Peninsular War(1807-1814) 

This conflict involved France fighting against Spain, Portugal, and Britain on the Iberian Peninsula. Key figures include Wellington and guerrilla fighters.

4)War of the Fifth coalition(1809)

 The Fifth Coalition (1809) of Britain and Austria against France formed as Britain engaged in the Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal. The sea became a major theatre of war against Napoleon's allies. Austria, previously an ally of France, took the opportunity to attempt to restore its imperial territories in Germany as held prior to Austerlitz. During the time of the Fifth Coalition, the Royal Navy won a succession of victories in the French colonies. On land the major battles included Battles of Raszyn, Eckmuhl, Raab, Aspern-Essling, and Wagram.

 

5)French invasion of Russia (1812) :

The French invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian Campaign or the Patriotic War of 1812, took place from June to December 1812. Napoleon Bonaparte, leading the Grande Armée, invaded Russia with the aim of forcing Tsar Alexander I to remain in the Continental System, which was a trade blockade against Britain.

Key points include:

- Napoleon crossed the Neman River into Russian territory.

- The Battle of Borodino was a fierce engagement resulting in heavy losses on both sides but no decisive victory.

-  Napoleon captured Moscow, which was largely abandoned and eventually burned by the Russians.

-  The French began their disastrous retreat from Moscow.

- The retreating French forces faced harsh winter conditions, attacks by Russian troops, and significant attrition, leading to the near destruction of Napoleon's army.

The invasion was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars, significantly weakening Napoleon's forces and leading to the formation of the Sixth Coalition.

 

6)War of the Sixth coalition(1813-1814):

After Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, the Sixth Coalition formed, including Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal. Major events were the Battle of Leipzig and the retreat from Russia.

7) War of the seventh coalition (1815) :

After Napoleon’s return from exile, the Seventh Coalition, which included Britain, Prussia, Austria, and other allies, fought against him. The decisive Battle of Waterloo occurred in 1815.
 

 Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon aimed to reclaim power after escaping exile.Wellington’s forces, bolstered by Prussian reinforcements under Blücher, engaged Napoleon's troops near Waterloo in modern-day Belgium.The battle saw intense fighting but ultimately, the combined Allied forces overwhelmed Napoleon.Result: Napoleon was defeated and subsequently exiled to Saint Helena, ending his rule and marking the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

  

Conclusion: 

 

Thus,the series of war continue with long time period. Wars end with the defeat of Napoleonic in Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic. The wars ended with the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe and established a new balance of power, leading to a period of relative peace on the continent known as the Concert of Europe.

 

Intentional Fallacy by William K. Wimsatt

 

About Author:

William Kurtz Wimsatt was an American professor of English, literary theorist, and critic. Wimsatt is often associated with the concept of the intentional fallacy, which he developed with Monroe Beardsley in order to question the importance of an author's intentions for the creation of a work of art. 

About Intentional Fallacy:

During the time period when they authored this essay, the commonly held notion amongst people was that "In order to judge the poet's performance, we must know what he intended". And in this notion led to what is termed the " Intentional Fallacy ". However wimsatt and Beardsley argue that the intention, i.e. the design or plan in the author is neither available nor desirable for judging the success of a work of literary art. It is not available because the author will most certainly not be beside the reader. When he/she reads the text and not desirable because international fallacy as mentioned already is nothing but the author's attitude toward his work, the way he felt while writing the text and what made him write that particular piece of writing and these factors might distract the reader from deciphering the meaning from the text. 

Summary:

"The international Fallacy " is an article authored and published in 1964 by william k. Wimsatt and Monroe c. Beardsley. It's premise is that is that readers can't and should not attempt to evaluate an author's work through the author's intentions. When reading literature, specifically poetry. 

Wimsatt and Beardsley begin with five proposition to introduce readers to this concept... 

The first proposition sates that poetry does not come into existence by accident, but by an author's intention. 

The second claims that readers have no way of obtaining a reliable answer to the question of what an author meant by their poem because if the author succeeded in their writing, the poem itself is the answer. 

The third claims that poetry has meaning through the fact that it exist in the first place, and it needs no meaning outside of simply being. 

The forth states that readers can find personal meaning in relating to a poem, but readers should now attribute their personal feeling about a poem to what the author intended for the poem. 

The fifth preposition explains that if an author is able to revise their work and better achieve their original intention, this means that what they thought was their original intention was not truly their original intention. 

Example of an Intention Fallacy :

The popular example of Intentional Fallacy in the real world is when critics attempt to analyze Leonard Da Vinci's authorial intent for his popular painting, Mona Lisa. There is much debate over whether or not Da Vinci intended for the woman in the painting to appear as smiling. Furthermore, there is debate over what kind of smile the woman in the painting is exhibiting. Some think it's sly or mysterious smile, some think it is a scornful smile and there are even more interpretation beyond these. 

Mistake of Intentional Fallacy :

The mistake of intentional fallacy is assuming that anyone can ever truly understand and an author's intentions behind their work. A mistake also occurs when a reader's intentions to evaluate the work in question. 

Conclusion :

The concept of intention fallacy has greatly influenced the process of criticism in the arts. It introduce a way of thinking about art and literature that decenter the creater's intentions for their art and suggests that each person should interpret for themself, what a work of art means. Wimsatt and Beardsley with these ideas, and they asserted that once an author has created that once an author has created and published a work, it belong to the public. This means that the author's intention no longer matters when the public perceives and evaluates the work in question. 

Socrates - A Greek Philosopher

Introduction:

 Socrates was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and as among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no texts and is known mainly through the posthumous accounts of classical writers, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon.

Early life :

                                                    Born : 470BC                                                          Died : 399Bc

Socrates was born in Athens. He  likely received a basic education typical for Athenian boys of his time, including instruction in reading, writing, and perhaps music and gymnastics.He had wide eyes and know for his hair and habit of bathing.  In younger age he turned into philosophy. He became part of Athens and Sparta war. He played vital role as solider or warrior. Sparta won the war and democracy end in Athens. At that time Socrates presented his argue. He was not good looking handsome man. 

Life as philosopher :

Socrates was great philosopher. He started his philosophy with small argue. In the starting of his career he faced lots of criticism. People charged on Socrates that he was wrong. Often he said that his philosophy based on "Demonia". Demonia word related with Athenian believes, he said that some divine power worked behind him and people were not ready to accept it. Another charge was "sophist" . We can call "Rhetoric "in mathematic. Socrates not believe that he was great philosopher but people realized him. He truly believe that... 

All I know is that I know nothing.

In competition about beauty he argued about his beauty that his eyes more powerful than other because it saw more than common people .He praised his own lips that he able to kiss very well. this kind of argument he gaves but he didn't won. But try for his philosophy. He never wrote book but his disciple plato wrote work APOLOGY for Socrates' philosophy. Five dialogue of Apology.. 

1) Euthyphro 

2) Apology

3) crito

4) Meno

5) Phaedo. 

Socrates not apologize but plato named Apology. At the end of life people misunderstood him and treat as psycho. In Athens drama played by particular group. The "drama of Clapious" . In that drama one character was added by people about Socrates. It seems and act like Socrates. He has great student like plato and xenophon. 

Death of Socrates :

Socrates, the renowned classical philosopher, was sentenced to death by drinking poison hemlock after being found guilty of impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens. People treat  him as big enemy of state.He died at the age of 71 on 399 BC. As philosopher  he developed philosophy as seperate branch but he didn't had that much respect during his lifetime. 

Conclusion :

Thus Socrates contributed much on philosophy but he didn't had happy ending. Ultimately he suicide. But before that he prepared his student like plato and other. He was first and great philosopher of the world. 

Bollywood Adoption Of Shakespeare's works

Q-1) Explore the best Bollywood adaptations of Shakespeare’s works. Discuss how these adaptations interpret and transform the original plays for an Indian audience.

Best Bollywood Adaptions:

 1) Angoor (1982) :

Directed by Gulzar, this film is a comedic adaptation of "The Comedy of Errors." Set in a lively Indian context, it features a complex plot of mistaken identities and comedic situations that align well with Shakespeare's play, bringing out humor through Indian cultural quirks and traditional. 

 2) Maqbool (2003) :

The first in Bhardwaj's Shakespeare trilogy, "Maqbool" is an adaptation of "Macbeth" set in Mumbai’s underworld. Irrfan Khan plays Maqbool, a gangster whose ambition drives him to treachery and murder. The film is noted for its intense performances, particularly by Khan and Tabu, and its dark, atmospheric setting. The screenplay effectively translates the themes of ambition and guilt into the context of organized crime, making it a standout in Indian cinema.            

3)omkara (2006) :   

Directed by Vishal Bhardwaj, "Omkara" is a gritty adaptation of Shakespeare's "Othello." Set in rural India, it explores themes of jealousy, power, and betrayal. Ajay Devgn plays Omkara, a powerful political enforcer whose insecurities and jealousy lead to a tragic downfall. The film is notable for its raw performances, particularly from Devgn and Saif Ali Khan, and its gripping portrayal of human emotions and flaws. The setting, music by Bhardwaj, and strong script contribute to its critical acclaim.

4) Haider (2016) :

Another Vishal Bhardwaj-Shakespeare adaptation, "Haider" is based on "Hamlet" and set against the backdrop of the Kashmir conflict. Shahid Kapoor stars as Haider, who returns to Kashmir to find his missing father and becomes entangled in a web of political and personal intrigue. The film is praised for its powerful performances, especially by Kapoor and Tabu, its evocative portrayal of the Kashmir conflict, and its haunting soundtrack. The film effectively combines political drama with the psychological depth of Shakespeare’s tragedy.

                       All three films demonstrate Bhardwaj’s skill in adapting Shakespearean tragedies to the Indian context while preserving the essence of the original plays. 

Why these are best adaptions :

                        According to me these are best adoption because of it's authenticity. Director adopt everything as it is. I agree that some kind of changes necessary because of different time and culture. Otherwise director hardly try to make audience happy. In all these movie we can see that theme and plot are very particular. Best effort to maintain authenticity. Another thing that director try to show indian perspective through English Literature. It is big challenge because some time people are very conscious about particular place or anything else. So, These are best adoption because it maintain all those things that truly matter in Shakespeare's work like theme, plot, characters etc. 

Plato's Objections to Artistic Freedom

Plato :

                Born : 428/427 or  424/423 BC

                Died : 348 BC 

               Plato born Aristocles, was an ancient Greek philosopher of the classical period. Who is considered a foundation thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms. He raised problem for what became all major areas of both theoretical philosophy and practical philosophy, and was the founder of the PLATONIC ACADEMY, a philosophical school in ATHENS where plato taught the doctrines that would later become knows as PLATONISM. 

A Recent Controversy In Literature,Film Or Art That Echoes Plato's Objections To Artistic Freedom:

              Plato says that art imitates the objects and event of ordinary life. In other words, a work of art is a copy of a form. It is even more of an illusion than is ordinary experience on this theory, work of art are at best entertainment and at worst a dangerous delusion. This theory also apply in recent controversy in literature, film or art. Because of entertainment or popularity writer, director or artist also forget the authenticity of content. They go far away from reality as per plato's example of chair and carpenter. 

              Plato discussed some argument about artistic freedom in his work "Republic".He said... 

 

-Art is mere imitation. 

-In recent World imitation or copy are very comman feature. One industry or writers easily imitate each other. 

-Neither art nor artist contain or convey any real knowledge of real things.

-In recent we can see the example of film that based on historical event or part of epic like RAMAYANA and  MAHABHARATA. 

-Art is harmful for ideal society. 

-Recent art may be harm ideal society or norm of any religion so, it would be controversial. 

-Art can generat dangerous imitative behaviour e. g. Superhero movie or 'Shaktiman- indian T. V. Show'.

- As per example some people prove right to plato through their ideology of making show or book. 

-Art should be carefully concerned in order to cultivate the health of both individual and society. 

-some time  book or film address some particular caste, people, norm, religion etc. So it would be a point of controversy but many time it would be try to increase standard of particular society or individual. In example  there are many film , documentary, periodical during independence that show the idealism of being human and become equal without any boundaries of society, religion or region. So it can cultivate the health of both individual and society. 

             

               In this time of OTT, there are many controversy about film, literature or art. People have many objections regarding society, religion, region, gender ,cast etc.And it  become topic of controversy. 

Example:

1) one recent controversy in literature that    echoes plato's objections to artistic freedom involve the debate over J. K. Rowling's portrayal of transgender issues in her writing and public statement in 2020.

 

                Plato in his work "Republic" argued that artistic freedom should be constrained to prevent art from promoting harmful ideal and moral delay. similarly, critics of Rowling's view argue that her statement and the themes in her work can perpetuate harmful stereotypes and undermine the right and dignity of transgender individually. 

2) second one is the backlash against the film INDIA:THE MODI QUESTION. The BBC documentary which examine prime minister Narendra Modi's role in the 2002 Gujarat riots, faced significant controversy and was banned in india. The film was criticised by some for potentially undermine national unity and promoting a negative image of the country. 

                This aligns with Plato's concern that art and media can be used to subvert societal values and norms, leading to censorship and attempts to control the nagative. 

3) THE KERALA STORY (2023) :The movie which depicts a controversial narrative about conversions and jihadist activities, faced significant criticism and was accused of promoting a divisive and inflammatory agenda. Some state even sought to ban the film, arguing that it could incite communal tension and mislead audience. 

                This mirror Plato's concern that artistic work can stir unrest and propagate harmful ideology, leading to calls for restrictions on artistic expression. 

 

 

My Stance On This  Controversy:

                 I'm agree with Plato's theory but not totally. Because sometimes art is imitation. Plato's example of chair and carpenter most appropriate on this theory. Now a days we can find it out that many films and literature banne because of the content is far away from reality. Writer or director only focus on imitation. They have no idea about what actually happened. They focus on publicity. Many film, literature or art left it's root. I see in many movie that controversial thing happen. Historical movie like 'PADMAVAT' , 'AADIPURUSH' become subject of controversy because of imitation. Some time it promote the idea of equality, transparency and many things that can be a medium of people to change their ideology regarding particular norm, caste or gender. 

                 So, according to me Plato is  right in his  theory of objections to artistic freedom but in now a days it become wrong for some people or thinkers.