PURITAN AGE
Background
The Puritan Age (1620-1660) was marked by significant political and religious upheaval in England. The Puritan movement sought both personal righteousness and civil and religious liberty. Unlike the Renaissance in Italy, which was more sensuous and pagan, the Puritan movement aimed to bring moral and political reform, resisting the despotism of rulers. It included people from various religious backgrounds united against tyranny, with prominent figures like Cromwell, Milton, and Hooker leading the charge. Though the Puritans are often viewed as rigid and austere, the movement was deeply tied to the pursuit of freedom and justice.
During this era, there was a profound political struggle between the monarchy and Parliament, resulting in the execution of King Charles I and the establishment of Cromwell's Commonwealth. The Puritans' fight for liberty helped modern England emerge.
Puritan Literature :
Puritan literature is deeply intertwined with religious and moral themes. The writers of this period viewed life through the lens of their faith, which focused on the strict moral principles of Puritanism, a movement advocating personal righteousness and religious purity. A dominant theme was the struggle between good and evil, often interpreted as the individual's battle against sin to achieve spiritual salvation. Biblical references and metaphors permeate much of Puritan literature, and its authors frequently emphasized the virtues of hard work, humility, and piety.The literature also reflects the Puritans' view of human life as a pilgrimage or spiritual journey. Earthly pleasures were often seen as distractions, and the focus was on spiritual readiness for the afterlife. Additionally, Puritan authors often critiqued the monarchy and the established church, reflecting the political and religious tensions of the time. Works were marked by a somber tone, often exploring themes of divine judgment and human frailty.
Influence of the English Civil War on Puritan Literature:
The English Civil War (1642-1651) between Royalists (supporters of King Charles I) and Parliamentarians (many of whom were Puritans) profoundly impacted the literature of the time. The political struggle between the monarchy and the forces seeking greater personal and religious liberty mirrored the tensions in Puritan literature. The war heightened the sense of religious duty among Puritan writers, who saw it as part of a divine mission to reform both church and state.Literature during and after the war reflected the triumph of Puritan ideals of personal responsibility and governance by consent, but also the personal hardships and spiritual questioning that accompanied the conflict. The destruction of the old order, the execution of Charles I, and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell fueled works that celebrated freedom from tyranny but lamented the price of civil war. Writers often explored themes of sacrifice, divine providence, and the restoration of moral order.
Prominent Writers:
John Milton (1608-1674) is one of the most significant figures of Puritan literature. His epic poem Paradise Lost (1667) stands as the greatest literary achievement of the era, reflecting the profound religious and moral questions of the time. The poem narrates the biblical story of the Fall of Man, portraying Satan’s rebellion against God and the eventual expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden. Milton’s powerful use of blank verse, his deep exploration of free will, obedience, and divine justice, and his profound theological reflections make this work a masterpiece of English literature.Milton’s other important works include Paradise Regained (1671) and Samson Agonistes (1671), both of which further explore the themes of redemption and divine grace. As a staunch Puritan, Milton also produced significant political writings advocating for freedom of speech and the republican cause, such as Areopagitica (1644).
John Bunyan (1628-1688), another major Puritan writer, is best known for his allegorical work The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678). This religious allegory follows the journey of Christian, an everyman figure, from his home in the City of Destruction to the Celestial City, representing the soul’s progress toward salvation. The work emphasizes Puritan values of repentance, perseverance, and faith, portraying the Christian life as a journey fraught with temptation and spiritual trials.Bunyan work was deeply influenced by his own religious experiences, having been imprisoned for his nonconformist beliefs. His other notable works include Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666), an autobiographical account of his spiritual struggles, and The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), which contrasts with The Pilgrim’s Progress by focusing on a life lived in sin.
Both Milton and Bunyan exemplify the profound religious and moral concerns of Puritan literature, offering works that have shaped the English literary tradition while conveying the spiritual and political tensions of their age.
RESTORATION AGE
Background
The Restoration was an time in the history of the British Isles that started in 1660. In 1660 the House of Stuart was restored to power after the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Restoration came after The Protectorate, when Oliver Cromwell and his son Richard Cromwell had led the government. The kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland started to have a monarchy again. "The Restoration" means both the events at the start of Charles II's reign and the period of time after they happened.
Defining Features of Restoration Literature:
Restoration literature marked a significant departure from earlier standards, reflecting the period's social upheavals. Key features include a tendency towards realism, often portraying the vices of court life, and an emphasis on formalism. The literature of this era moved away from the imaginative, patriotic style of Elizabethan and Puritan literature, favoring instead a more precise, structured expression. This period also introduced the heroic couplet, particularly through poets like Dryden and Waller, which became the dominant form for nearly a century. Another characteristic was the adoption of a more direct and simple prose style, influenced by French literature, emphasizing clarity and conciseness.
Influence of the Restoration of the Monarchy:
The Restoration of Charles II in 1660 profoundly influenced the literature of the period. The moral and political corruption of the court and society mirrored the loosening of Puritan restraints. Writers, many of whom had been in exile with Charles, returned to England influenced by French literary styles, leading to a shift in English drama and poetry. French influence led to a focus on form and structure, often at the expense of substance. The depravity of the court and its focus on pleasure influenced literary themes, with plays and poetry often reflecting the licentiousness and moral ambiguity of the time.
Emergence of Satire and Comedy:
Satire and comedy became prominent genres during the Restoration, particularly in response to the corrupt nature of the court and society. Writers like Dryden and Wycherley used wit and humor to critique the moral failings of the aristocracy. This period also saw the rise of a vulgar realism in drama, focusing on the flaws and vices of its characters. However, by the end of the century, the excesses of Restoration comedy and drama were criticized, leading to a literary movement towards more morally conscious works, such as those influenced by Jeremy Collier's critique in 1698.
Prominent writers of the Age
John Dryden (19 August 1631 -12 May 1700) a prominent literary figure of the Restoration period, produced works in various genres, including drama, satire, poetry, and prose. His dramatic works, although numerous, are largely forgotten due to their moral decay. However, All for Love stands out as a notable play, where Dryden, departing from his favored heroic couplet, adopted blank verse to rework Antony and Cleopatra, showing his potential in tragedy.In the realm of satirical poetry, Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel is his most famous work. It is a powerful political satire that uses biblical allegory to mock figures like the Duke of Monmouth (Absalom) and Lord Shaftesbury (Achitophel). This work solidified Dryden's reputation and had significant political impact during its time.
As a prose writer, Dryden had a significant influence on the development of English prose. His clear, concise style, exemplified in his Essay of Dramatic Poesy, helped lay the foundation for modern literary criticism and set a standard for the clarity and precision that would define English prose in the classical age.
William Congreve (24 January 1670 – 19 January 1729) an English playwright, poet and Whig politician. His works, which form an important component of Restoration literature, were known for their use of satire and the comedy of manners genre. Notable plays he wrote include The Old Bachelor (1693), The Double Dealer (1694), Love for Love (1695), The Mourning Bride (1697) and The Way of the World (1700). He died in London, and was buried at the Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.
The major themes in William Congreve's works, especially in the context of his Restoration comedies, center around the satire of societal norms and the comedy of manners. His plays often explore the complexities of romantic relationships and marriage, exposing the hypocrisies, deceit, and superficiality of the upper-class society of his time.
Conclusion :
The transformation from the Puritan to the Restoration Age marked a significant shift from strict moral austerity to a period of excess, indulgence, and political instability following the return of Charles II in 1660. While the Puritan era emphasized religious discipline and repression of personal freedoms, the Restoration embraced pleasure, wit, and a rejection of previous constraints, especially in its literature, which saw the rise of satire and the comedy of manners. However, the decadence of the Restoration also exposed the dangers of unchecked monarchy and moral laxity, ultimately leading the societal realization of the need for political balance and cultural refinement.
Reference
Long, William J. English Literature. Maple Press Pvt. Limited, 2012.
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